Xunzi (active 298-238 BCE), or Hsün-tzu, developed a new
version of Confucianism which can be contrasted with that of
the other great follower of Confucius, Mencius, who saw people
as inherently good and governed by a moral sense. Active in
the time of instability and disruption in Chinese history
known as the Warring States, Xunzi saw people as having an
inherently evil nature that required control by education,
ritual and custom. His pupil, Han Fei Tzu developed this
philosophy further by elevating law to a position of supreme
importance in governing human affairs. Han Fei’s presumed
influence on the Emperor Ch’in (in such activities as cruel
punishments and the attempt to destroy China’s past by the
burning of books) gave him a notoriety that reflected back on
his teacher. As a result, the work of Mencius for many
centuries received much more attention than that of Xunzi.
Xunzi, a native of Zhao (Chao), became a well-recognized
scholar and rose to official posts, including that of
magistrate. In spite of his gloomy view of humanity’s original
nature, Xunzi saw people as perfectible through education and
through application of the proper rules of conduct. People
were born with a conflicting mixture of desires that if
allowed unfettered reign would lead to disaster. It was the
role of society, through its culture (including music) to
impose order onto the chaos of desires and channel them into
constructive, rather than destructive, effort. He held that
human intelligence created social organizations in order to
bring divergent human impulses into harmony. To this end,
Xunzi stressed not only the importance of education but also
the correct use of words, often providing extensive lists of
definitions. He is also noteworthy in his view that heaven is
not the realm of mystical forces embodying ethical principles
(Mencius’ view) but is part of the realm of nature,
indifferent to humans.
Xunzi developed his theories in a logical manner in a book of
some 32 chapters. These might be regarded as the first
collection of philosophical essays in China—as distinct from
fragments (analects) or records of conversations. The extracts
given here are taken from the first six chapters (or books, as
they are called).
Inner Power
1 There must be some beginning for every type of phenomenon
that occurs. The coming of honor or disgrace must be a
reflection of one's inner power.
From rotting meat come maggots;
decaying wood produces woodworms.
An insolent disregard for one's own person creates therewith
calamity and misfortune. The rigid cause themselves to be
broken; the pliable cause themselves to be bound. Those whose
character is mean and vicious will rouse others to animosity
against them.
2 The gentleman, knowing well that learning that is incomplete
and impure does not deserve to be called fine, recites and
enumerates his studies that he will be familiar with them,
ponders over them and searches into them that he will fully
penetrate their meaning, acts in his person that they will
come to dwell within him, and eliminates what is harmful
within him that he will hold on to them and be nourished by
them. Thereby he causes his eye to be unwilling to see what is
contrary to it, his ear unwilling to hear what is contrary to
it, his mouth unwilling to speak anything contrary to it, and
his mind unwilling to contemplate anything contrary to it.
When he has reached the limit of such perfection, he finds
delight in it. His eye then finds greater enjoyment in the
five colors, his ear in the five sounds, his mouth in the five
tastes, and his mind benefits from possessing all that is in
the world.
Therefore, the exigencies of time and place and considerations
of personal profit cannot influence him, cliques and coteries
cannot sway him, and the whole world cannot deter him. He was
born to follow it, and he will die following it: truly this
can be called "being resolute from inner power." Keep resolute
from inner power because only then can you be firm of purpose.
Be firm of purpose because only then can you be responsive to
all. One who can be both firm of purpose and responsive to all
is truly to be called the "perfected man." Just as the value
of Heaven is to be seen in its brilliance and that of Earth in
its vast expanses, so the gentleman is to be valued for his
completeness.
Definitions
3 To lead others with what is good is called "education." To
agree with others for the sake of what is good is called "concord."
To lead others with what is not good is called "flattery." To
agree with others in the interests of what is not good is
called "toadying." To recognize as right what is right and as
wrong what is wrong is called "wisdom." To regard as wrong
what is right and as right what is wrong is called "stupidity."
"Slander" is doing injury to an honorable man; "malefaction"
is doing him harm. "Straightforwardness" is calling right what
is right and wrong what is wrong. "Robbery" is stealing
property; "deceit" is concealing conduct; and "boasting" is
treating words lightly. One whose inclinations and aversions
are unsettled is called "inconstant." One who protects
personal profit at the expense of abandoning his moral duty is
called "utterly malicious." One who has heard much is "broad";
one who has heard little is "shallow." One who has seen much
is "cultivated''; one who has seen little is "provincial." He
who has difficulty obtaining advancement in office is "dilatory";
and he who easily forgets is "oblivious." One who, though he
does only a few things, obeys natural principles in organizing
what he does is "well ordered"; one who, though he does many
things, lacks any principle of organization in what he does is
"bewildered."
Education
4 If the blood humor is too strong and robust, calm it with
balance and harmony. If knowledge and foresight are too
penetrating and deep, unify them with ease and sincerity. If
the impulse to daring and bravery is too fierce and violent,
stay it with guidance and instruction. If the quickness of the
mind and the fluency of the tongue are too punctilious and
sharp, moderate them in your activity and rest. What is so
narrow and restricted that it has become mean and petty,
broaden with liberality and magnanimity. What is base and low
from greed for selfish gain, lift up with a sense of high
purpose. What is common and mediocre, worthless and
undisciplined, overcome with the help of teachers and friends.
What is negligent and self-indulgent, frivolous and heedless,
warn against with omens and portents. What is simpleminded but
sincere, upright and diligent, consolidate with ritual and
music. [What is... ], make comprehensive with thought and
inquiry. In summary, of all the methods of controlling the
vital breath and nourishing the mind, none is more direct than
proceeding according to ritual principles, none more essential
than obtaining a good teacher, and none more intelligent than
unifying one's likes. Truly this procedure may properly be
called "the method of controlling the vital breath and
nourishing the mind."
The Gentleman
5 The gentleman is easy to come to know, but difficult to be
familiar with. He is easily made apprehensive but is difficult
to intimidate. He dreads suffering but will not avoid what is
required by his moral duty, even at the risk of death. He
desires what is beneficial but will not do what is wrong. In
his personal relations he is considerate but not partial. His
discussions are in the form of discriminations but are not
disordered formulations. How magnificently he possesses all
that differentiates him from the vulgar world about him!
6 Whether the gentleman is capable or not, he is loved all the
same; conversely the petty man is loathed all the same. If the
gentleman has ability, he is magnanimous, generous, tolerant,
and straightforward, through which he opens the way to
instruct others. If he is incapable, he is respectful,
reverent, moderate, and modest, through which, being awe-inspired,
he undertakes to serve others.
If the petty man is capable, he is rude and arrogant,
perverted and depraved, so that he is filled with an
overweening pride around others. If he has no ability, he is
envious, jealous, resentful, and given to backbiting, so that
he subverts and undermines others. Accordingly, it is said:
If the gentleman is capable, others will consider it an honor
to learn from him, and if he lacks ability, they will be
pleased to inform him about things. If the petty man has
ability, others will consider it contemptible to learn from
him, and if he is capable, they will be ashamed to inform him
about things.
This constitutes the distinction between the gentleman and the
petty man.
7 The gentleman is magnanimous, but not to the point of being
remiss. He is scrupulous, but not to the point of inflicting
suffering. He engages in argumentation, but not to the point
of causing a quarrel. He is critical, but not to the point of
provoking others. When he upholds an upright position, he is
not merely interested in victory. When hard and strong, he is
not haughty. When flexible and tractable, he does not merely
drift with the demands of the occasion. He is respectful,
reverent, attentive, and cautious, but still remains inwardly
at ease. Truly this may be called the "perfection of good form."
An Ode says:
Mildly gentle and respectful men,
only they are the foundation for inner power.
This expresses my meaning.
8 In natural talent, inborn nature, awareness, and capability,
the gentleman and the petty man are one. In cherishing honor
and detesting disgrace, in loving benefit and hating harm, the
gentleman and the petty man are the same. Rather, it appears
that the way they employ to make their choices produces the
difference. The petty man is eager to make boasts, yet desires
that others should believe in him. He enthusiastically engages
in deception, yet wants others to have affection for him. He
conducts himself like an animal, yet wants others to think
well of him. When he reflects on something, it is understood
only with difficulty. When he acts in regard to something, it
is difficult for him to make it secure. When he tries to
sustain something, he has difficulty establishing it. In the
end, he is certain to fail to obtain what he loves and sure to
encounter what he hates.
Accordingly, the gentleman is trustworthy and so desires that
other men should trust him as well. He is loyal and so wants
other men to have affection for him. He cultivates rectitude
and makes orderly his management of situations, and so desires
that others should think well of him. When he reflects on
something, it is easily understood. When he acts, it is easy
for him to make it secure. When he tries to sustain something,
it is easily established. In the end, he is certain to obtain
what he loves and sure not to encounter what he hates. For
these reasons, when he is unsuccessful in seeking office, he
will not live in obscurity; when he is successful, he will
become greatly illustrious; and when he dies, his reputation
will be still more extensively declared.
The Scholar
9 There are successful scholars, public-spirited scholars,
upright scholars, cautious scholars, and those who are merely
petty men. Only one who can honor his lord and love the people,
who can respond to things whenever they come and manage
situations as they turn up, is properly called a "successful
scholar."
Only one who does not form cliques with his inferiors to
deceive his superiors, who does not conform to the opinions of
his superiors out of envy of those in lower positions, who
settles disputes with fairness and does not bring harm to
others by acting out of considerations of private ends, is
properly called a "public-spirited scholar."
Only one who does not harbor resentments against his lord when
superiors do not recognize his good personal qualities and who
does not accept rewards when superiors are unaware of his
shortcomings, who neither shows off his good qualities nor
glosses over his faults but uses the true circumstances to
recommend himself, is properly termed an "upright scholar."
Only one who is certain to be honest in ordinary speech and
prudent in ordinary behavior, who is awe-inspired by the model
and goes along with popular customs, and does not presume to
consider what is unique to himself as correct, is properly
termed a "cautious scholar."
Only one who is inconstantly honest in his speech and
inconstantly correct in his conduct, who is partial to
whatever involves profit to himself to the exclusion of all
else, is properly considered a "petty man."
Courage
10 There is the bravery of the dog and boar and that of the
peddler and robber. There is the courage of the petty man and
that of the scholar and gentleman. Quarreling over food and
drink, having neither scruples nor shame, not knowing right
from wrong, not trying to avoid death or injury, not fearful
of greater strength or of greater numbers, greedily aware only
of food and drink—such is the bravery of the dog and boar.
Dealing in transactions of profit, quarreling over goods and
valuables, having no concern for polite refusals or for
yielding precedence, being audacious and daring, given to
temerity and effrontery, greedily aware only of profit—such is
the bravery of peddlers and robbers. Scorning death when
filled with passionate intensity, [... ]—such is the courage
of the petty man. Staying with what is just, not swayed by the
exigencies of the moment, not given to looking after his own
benefit, elevating the interests of the whole state and
assisting in realizing them, not acting to change his point of
view, weighing the threat of death but upholding his moral
duty and not backing away from it—such is the courage of the
scholar and gentleman.
Consequences
11 When a man sees something desirable, he must reflect on the
fact that with time it could come to involve what is
detestable. When he sees something that is beneficial, he
should reflect that sooner or later it, too, could come to
involve harm. Only after weighing the total of the one against
that of the other and maturely calculating should he determine
the relative merits of choosing or refusing his desires and
aversions. In this fashion, he will regularly avoid failure
and being ensnared by what he has chosen. In general, the
calamities that beset mankind are the result of prejudices and
the damage they cause. If, when a man sees something desirable,
he does not reflect that it may come to be detestable and,
something beneficial, that it could come to be harmful, then
it is inevitable that his movements will ensnare him and his
actions will bring disgrace. Just this constitutes the
calamity of prejudice and the damages that result from it.
Dangerous Words
12 Pride and excess bring disaster for man. Respectfulness and
moderation ward off the five weapons, for although the lance
and spear are piercing, they are not so sharp as
respectfulness and moderation. Hence words of praise for
another are warmer than clothing of linen and silk. The wound
caused by words is deeper than that of spears and halberds.
Thus, that one can find no place to walk through the breadth
of the earth is not because the earth is not tranquil but
because the danger to every step of the traveler lies
generally with words. When the roadway is broad, people yield
the way; when the roadway is narrow, they are crowded together.
Although they have no desire to be heedful, it is as if
circumstances forced them to move thusly.
Source
Xunzi: A Translation and Study of the Complete Works, Volume
I, Books 1-6, by John Knoblock. Stanford University Press,
Stanford, California, 1988. Copyright 1988 by the Board of
Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University.
